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UNIT II – International
Co-operation and Conflict Context A 1890s – 1920s
EUROPE BEFORE 1914
Rivalries
Europe was divided into rivalries
Trade – Britain felt threatened by growth of Germany and USA
Imperial – Britain and France threatened by growth of German Empire. Russia and Austria-Hungary arguing over Balkans
National – France and Germany rivals over Alsace-Lorraine
Main problems – rise of Germany and tension in the Balkans
Main Players
Britain
richest and most powerful country
large empire
ruled by King George V
policy of “splendid isolation”
small army
most powerful navy “2 power standard”
France
led by President Poincare
colonies in Africa – interested in this area
industrialised
Germany
led by Kaiser Wilhelm II
growing richer and hungry for land and power
late in race for colonies but keen to get some
wanted a bigger army and navy
Russia
ruled by Tsar Nicholas II
large country but quite backward
large but ineffective army
wanted control of the Balkans
Austria-Hungary
led by Emperor Franz Josef
empire made up of lots of small nations with different races, religions
other countries were Italy, Turkey (a declining empire) and the Balkans (a troubled area)
Search for friends
Germany
main enemy = France and wanted to isolate her
1879 alliance with Austria-Hungary
1882 alliance with Italy = Triple Alliance (a military agreement)
France
main enemy = Germany
worried about her growing in strength and signing alliances
1884 alliance with Russia
1904 friends with Britain = Triple Entente
German Aggression
Land
desperate to expand, wanted large empire to rival France and Britain
1905 Morocco. France controlled Morocco so to cause tension Germany encouraged the Moroccans to be more independent. To Germany’s surprise, Britain backed France
1911 Morocco. G again tried to be powerful and sent gunboat to Morocco. This was seen as a warlike move and Britain threatened Germany. Germany backed down but tension remained
Military
increased her military power.
Army already strong so focused on increasing Navy. This worried Britain
1906 Britain launches Dreadnought. Very modern warship which made all others inferior. It was faster, bigger and more heavily armed
Germany started to build them – the naval race had begun
Tension between Germany and Britain was very high.
Notes
CAUSES OF WW1
Alliances
Countries in Europe were dragged into war because of the alliances they had made
Triple Alliance – Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy
Triple Entente – Britain, France and Russia
Britain also had an alliance with Belgium
Alliance = military agreement – will go to war if a country is attacked
Entente = friendship – countries agreed to put aside differences
Arms Race
growth of weapons, army, navy
naval race – Germany wanted to increase the size of her navy
Britain worried about this, she wanted to keep the “2 power standard”
1906 launch of new battleship - Dreadnought. This was faster, more armed, bigger than all other warships
Balkans
troubled area in South East Europe
made up of many small nations who want independence
1908 Austria-Hungary takes over Bosnia
Serbia is not happy with this
Serbia supports the Balkan states in their fight for independence. Serbia is an independent country
rise of nationalism in the area
Austria-Hungary is against the Balkans being independent. Her empire is made up of lots of small nations and if they are successful in getting independence she will disintegrate
Sarajevo
28 June 1914 Archduke Franz Ferdinand assassinated in Sarajevo
He was heir to Austrian throne
Killed by Gavrillo Princip who was a Serb and member of the Black Hand Gang
Austria-Hungary sends ultimatum to Serbia
Ultimatum demands that Serbia accepts responsibility for the killing, allows Austrians in to run the investigation and only given 2 days to reply
Ultimatum seen as harsh by other countries
Serbia rejects the ultimatum
Austria Hungary declares war on Serbia
How they all got involved
When Austria-Hungary declares war on Serbia, Russia mobilises to help her fellow Slav country
Germany now mobilises to help her ally Austria-Hungary
France mobilises to help her ally Russia
When Germany invades Belgium, Britain declares war on Germany
Notes
SCHLIEFFEN PLAN
Original Plan
created by Count Von Schlieffen 1905
military plan to stop Germany having a war on 2 fronts
Germany faced attack from France in the west and Russia in the east
Aims
to keep the German army as 1 and not to divide it into 2
to defeat France first and then attack Russia with Austria-Hungary
Germany believed Russia would take 6 weeks to mobilise – this was plenty of time to defeat France
Speed was vital
to attack France, Germany decided to go through Belgium (a neutral country)
Belgium was a small flat country with a small army – easy and quick to defeat
the invasion of Belgium led to British involvement in the war
Schlieffen stressed that 6/7 of the German army divisions should go through Belgium
The remaining division was to attack directly through the French/German border
Moltke’s version
Von Moltke replaced Schlieffen as Chief of General and made changes
He feared France would invade Germany if only 1 division went directly to France
If France invaded Germany then she could easily take over munitions factories, industries and stop supplies to Belgium
Moltke wanted 5/7 division to go through Belgium and 2 to go directly to France
How did it fail?
Belgium army stronger than expected – held up Germans at Liege
Britain kept alliance with Belgium and came to her defence – held up German army at Mons and le Cateau
German soldiers had to wait for supplies from Germany
Russia mobilised much quicker and Germany had to send troops to the east
Battle of the Marne
German army made a mistake and swung south for Paris too soon
Britain and France decided to attack
France sent troops from Paris to Marne by taxi
German retreated and “dug in” – she didn’t want to loose the ground she had already taken
Britain and France dug in as well
Trench Warfare had begun
Notes
TRENCHES
Keywords
Stalemate = no country could move, soldiers stuck in one place
Attrition = each side tried to wear down the enemy and force them to surrender
Western Front = area where trenches were. Stretched from coast, across France to border with Switzerland
Design
Layout was vital so troops, supplies and messages could be moved
approx 2.5 metres deep
battlefield was in-between 2 sets of trenches – called No Man’s Land
built in lines
front line trench
reserve trench
supply trench
in-between all of these were communication trenches
built in zig zags so if the enemy got in they couldn’t fire straight down it
blind alley – trench that led to a dead end to confuse the enemy
INSIDE
duckboards (wooden) to walk on to try to keep feet dry
firing step to lift soldier up to see where to aim
dug out – area built into the side of the trench where soldiers slept
sandbags were at the top of the trench, front and back
barbed wire in front of the trench
Conditions
noise – from shells
smell – rotting bodies, smoke from shells, sweat, latrines
diseases – lack of proper toilets, dysentery, trenchfoot, poor rations
rats – ate stale foods and dead bodies
boredom – soldiers suffered from this
battles – stress, fear, shock, injury, death
Many soldiers struggled in the trenches. Depression was common, morale lowered as war dragged on (it was not “over by Christmas”) and idea of war being romantic was lost. Life in the trenches was very difficult and for some soldiers it was all too much, some committed suicide.
Tactics
Battles followed a similar pattern
heavy artillery bombarded enemy trenches
troops went “over the top” and advanced into no man’s land
in no man’s land soldiers faced fire from enemy machine guns
if successfully crossed no man’s land, cut through barbed wire and survive hand to hand fighting
This type of battle usually failed. Artillery didn’t destroy the trenches, no mans land had no protection from machine guns. In battle it was easier to defend than attack.
Weapons
Artillery (cannons that fired shells) – not very effective
Machine Guns – very effective
Aeroplanes – first used towards end of war, limited effect
Tanks – first used 1916 Battle of the Somme – not very effective
Gas - no fear after issue of gas masks, not very effective
Spade
Battles
1916 Battle of Verdun – Verdun was very important town for French, had army forts. Germans attacked and French defended but lost many men.
1916 Battle of the Somme – Battle attack, worst day in British Military History, approx. 60,000 men died on the first day. Tanks used for the first time.
1917 Battle of Passchendaele – Canadian troops fought on side of Allies
By 1917 Canada and USA troops
involved. Helped clinch allied victory in 1918
Cost
Massive loss of lives. Estimated that 9 million lives were lost in the “great war”
Germany suffered highest loss of men
Notes
HOME FRONT 1914-1918
Britain 1914
most people supported the war
people believed it was a just war to defend Belgium
it was a chance to settle differences with Germany
suffragettes abandoned campaign
many Irish men joined the British army
some people did however oppose the war – conscientious objectors
political – didn’t agree with Gov’t decision
religious – against religion
absolutists
Effects of War: Britain
Armed Forces
increase in size, men needed to fight
high casualty rate due to machine guns meant even more men needed
1916 Universal Conscriptions Act: men aged 18-41 had to join army unless essential workers or conscientious objectors
Women
joined the war effort
worked in heavy industry, gov’t departments, land army, joined VAD as nurses to help wounded soldiers, did work previously done by men
fashion changed – women now wore trousers, earned their own money and became independent
Rationing
food became in short supply – food ships were converted to troop carrying ships
German u-boats (submarines) attacked food ships and reduced amount of food coming in
Rise in prices
Food rationing introduced so everyone could cover basic needs
1916 – Country War Agriculture Committee set up to encourage increase in food production
Women’s Land Army brought more workers onto the land
Government
1914 – Defence of the Realm Act (DORA) restricted peoples freedoms
Gov’t took more control of industry in order to ensure that weapons needed for battle were provided
1915 Munitions Act – restricted workers from changing jobs, lengthened hours and controlled wages
strikes were illegal in the munitions industry
Economy
went through changes during the war
Britain ran up debts
Economy weakened due to loss of trade with Japan and USA
Lost most of her merchant navy
Britain being overtaken by other countries in industrial methods
had to borrow money at end of war to cover debts
Britain lost “workshop of the world”
Britain ceased to be main source of foreign investment
Britain lost money and influence on world scene
Parts of British empire became independent
new industries (aircraft) strengthened the economy
Other Factors
1915 War Act created internment for aliens (foreigners)
Aliens and property were attacked
Royal family changed its name
Liberal Gov’t blamed
Liberals formed a coalition with Conservatives
“Socialism” in trenches reduced class divisions
Women given the vote in 1918
Effects of War: Germany
Germany suffered greatly during the war
naval blockade on Germany from 1914 reduced war materials and food getting to Germany
1917 Germans were starving and disillusioned by war – wanted peace
1918 revolution in Germany forced Germany to surrender to Allies
By 1918 German war materials were exhausted and she could no longer carry on
Many German soldiers believed in Communism and no longer wanted to fight
German high command told the Kaiser that soldiers could no longer be relied upon to fight
German Gov’t at end of the war
faced revolution
faced dilemma of whether to accept Treaty of Versailles
handed Kaiser over to Allies as a war criminal
strikes and mutinies in Army and Navy
problems of what to do with returning soldiers
feared new neighbours – Poland might attack her
Role of USA
lowered morale of Germans
Didn’t enter in 1914 because
not a member of Triple Alliance or Triple Entente
no immediate threat to USA
followed policy of isolation
to support Britain or Germany would lead to trouble with American immigrant groups
1917 entered war on side of Allies
because of
German unrestricted submarine warfare
Zimmerman Telegram
War declared on Germany 1917
Result of USA involvement
American Expeditionary Force sent to Western Front
Morale of Allies lifted
gave USA a seat on the Peace Conference in 1919
Notes
TREATY OF VERSAILLES
End of World War One
lack of support in Germany led to a revolution which forced Germany to surrender
1918 the “big four” met at Versailles to create a peace treaty
The “big four” were:
President Wilson, USA wanted a fair treaty based on his 14 point plan
Lloyd George, Britain first wanted to punish Germany then changed attitude
Georges Clemenceau, France believed Germany should be punished for waging war, planned to get as much as he could, Germany was not allowed to discuss the terms and only had 15 days to reply
Orlando, Italy wanted as much land as possible for Italy
Treaty
Terms
it was dictated peace
Germany had to accept “war guilt” clause (Article 231)
League of Nations was set up
A union between Germany and Austria (Anschluss) was forbidden
Territorial Clauses
all of Germany’s colonies given to the League of Nations who decided who got them
In Europe:
Alsace-Lorraine given back to France
Eupen Malmedy given to Belgium
Schleswig given to Denmark
Danzig and Saar to be looked after by League of Nations
Newly created Poland got land in the East
Germany was reduced in size with key areas of importance (areas rich in pride or natural resources) given away
Military Clauses
Army – limited to 100,000 men, no gas, tanks or artillery and no conscription
Navy – only 6 battleships with rest going to the Allies, no u-boats
Air force – no planes allowed
Demilitarisation of Rhineland area – no military in the east of this area and west part to be occupied by Allies for 15 years
Reparations
£6,600,000,000 to be paid to Allies in annual payments or in gold, currency or goods
Criticisms
it was dictated peace – Germany didn’t agree to it
war guilt clause was unfair
Germany denied national self determination (where minorities have the right to decide which country should rule them)
Germany resented loss of colonies
New Germany was punished for Kaiser’s policy
Germany’s International Position in 1918
Germany was humiliated by the Treaty
Germany had to accept responsibility for starting the war
Powerless, especially as army was defeated and reduced
BUT, Germany was no longer encircled by hostile nations – Britain, France and Russia
Russia was now weaker and in middle of a civil war
Britain and France were devastated countries
Therefore International position was not as bad as it first seemed
Remember: the Allies could have divided Germany between them
Notes
LEAGUE OF NATIONS
This was created at the Treaty of Versailles and its aim was to maintain world peace
Aims
to encourage arbitration (discussion) rather than conflict
to discourage war by imposing economic sanctions
to bring about peace through “collective security”
to bring about disarmament
Problems
major nations like USA not members of the League
Germany and Russia were not allowed to join
Britain and France were economically and military weak after 1919 and couldn’t support the league with force
Weaknesses of the League
important countries didn’t join
too closely linked to the Treaty of Versailles
no effective way to enforce its decisions
viewed with suspicion because of its close links with the Treaty of Versailles
countries left the league at will if things weren’t going their way
Successes of the League
it was the only international organisation created to prevent wars
did have some success
returned Prisoners of War
helped refugees
improved conditions for workers
improved health
fought against slavery
France and Collective Security
France saw Germany as her enemy and she didn’t rely on the League to protect her and contain Germany
France instead relied on
Reparations to keep Germany weak
The French army and the Maginot line
A little entente with new countries in east – Poland, Czechoslovakia – to threaten Germany and create a war on two fronts
Germany and Collective Security
Germany felt aggrieved by the Treaty of Versailles
Under leader of Stressmann Germany followed a policy of fulfilment
Germany tried to persuade the Allies that she was doing her best
Germany tried to persuade her neighbours that she wasn’t a threat to peace
This policy was eventually successful
1924 Dawes Plan reduced reparations
1929 Young Plan reduced reparations
1925 Locarno Treaty between France and Germany – Germany said she wouldn’t go to war over Alsace-Lorraine
1926 Germany allowed to enter League of Nations
1932 Hoover Moratorium suspended reparations
1933 This policy ended when Hitler came to power
Notes
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